Keywords
antimicrobial
anti-infective
infectious diseases
traditional healer
medicinal plant
How to Cite
Abstract
Introduction
Infectious diseases are a real public health problem. Faced with the problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in their treatments, it is essential to find alternative solutions.
Purpose
The present study aimed to gather more information about medicinal plants used to treat infectious diseases by traditional healers in two markets of Brazzaville City, in the Republic of Congo.
Methods
This ethnobotanical survey was carried out through individual interviews in the local language, using a semi-structured questionnaire.
Results
From August 24 to September 02, 2022, fifteen traditional healers were enrolled, 7 men and 8 women. The average age of respondents was 47 years old. The literacy level was 60%. Most of the traditional healers belonged to the Lari ethnic group. Their knowledge of plant use was largely derived from cultural heritage. Twenty-three plant species were identified. These were Acacia nilotica, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cyathula prostrata, Caladium bicolor, Hua gabonii, Aframomum stipulatum, Annona arenaria, Acanthus montanus, Asystasia gangetica, Alchornea floribunda, Milletia congolensis, Mangifera indica, Phaulopsis poggei, Anthonotha macrophylla, Dichrostachys glomerata, Heinsia crinita, Alstonia congensis, Acanthus montanus, Rauvolfia obscura, and Carica papaya. The most represented family was Acanthaceae (17.39%). Carica papaya (18.96%) was the most frequently cited species for the treatment of infections. The leaves represented the plant parts most used by the respondents (26.02%). Decoction (48%) was the preparation technique most frequently used to facilitate drug administration. The oral route was the most widely used (52%). Malaria and gonorrhea (22.8%) topped the list of infections treated by the traditional healers.
Conclusion
These findings illustrate the wealth of indigenous knowledge of plants with anti-infectious properties in the Congolese flora. They also highlight the potential of traditional medicine plants as sources of new antimicrobial agents, which could play an essential role in combating antimicrobial resistance.
References
Abdullahi, A. A. (2011). Trends and challenges of traditional medicine in Africa. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 8(5), 115–123. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v8i5S.5
Anibijuwon, I. I., & Udeze, A. O. (2009). Antimicrobial Activity of Carica Papaya (Pawpaw Leaf) on Some Pathogenic Organisms of Clinical Origin from South-Western Nigeria. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, 13(Mic), 850–864.
Asanga, E. E., Okoroiwu, H., Edet, U. O., Amaechi, D., Nelson, P. E., Uchenwa, M., Eseyin, O. A., Samuel, G., Ettah, L. A., & Obongha, O. A. (2023). Antimalarial activity of Mangifera indica aqueous extract in Plasmodium berghei’s apicoplast. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 22 (5), 1007–1015.
Asghar, N., Naqvi, S. A. R., Hussain, Z., Rasool, N., Khan, Z. A., Shahzad, S. A., Sherazi, T. A., Janjua, M. R. S. A., Nagra, S. A., Zia-Ul-Haq, M., & Jaafar, H. Z. (2016). Compositional difference in antioxidant and antibacterial activity of all parts of the Carica papaya using different solvents. Chemistry Central Journal, 10(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-016-0149-0
Ashande, C. M., Ngbolua, K. J., Imani, B., Rusaati, W., & Gbolo, B. Z. (2023). Ethno-botanical survey of medicinal plants species traditionally used for the treatment of diseases in Kasangulu Territory, DRC. Moroccan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4(2), 76–85.
Asiimwe, S., Kamatenesi-Mugisha, M., Namutebi, A., Borg-Karlsson, A. K., & Musiimenta, P. (2013). Ethnobotanical study of nutri-medicinal plants used for the management of HIV/AIDS opportunistic ailments among the local communities of western Uganda. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 150(2), 639–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.09.017
Awan, A., Ahmed, C. B., Uzair, M., Aslam, M. S., Farooq, U., & Ishfaq, K. (2014). Family acanthaceae and genus aphelandra: Ethnopharmacological and phytochemical review. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 6(10), 44–55.
Axiotis, E., Halabalaki, M., & Skaltsounis, L. A. (2018). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in the Greek islands of North Aegean Region. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 9(MAY), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.00409
Azam, F. M. S., Biswas, A., Mannan, A., Afsana, N. A., Jahan, R., & Rahmatullah, M. (2014). Are famine food plants also ethnomedicinal plants? An ethnomedicinal appraisal of famine food plants of two districts of Bangladesh. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2014, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/741712
Bano, A., Mushtaq, A., Taibi, B. H., Saboor, A., Shazia, S., Zafar, M., Khan, M., Ashraf, M., & Aqeel, M. (2014). Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 10(43), 1–17.
Baran, A., Kwiatkowska, A., & Potocki, L. (2023). Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance—A Short Story of an Endless Arms Race. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(6), 5777. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24065777
Baratti-Mayer, D., Daou, M. B., Gayet-Ageron, A., Jeannot, E., & Pittet-Cuénod, B. (2019). Sociodemographic characteristics of traditional healers and their knowledge of noma: A descriptive survey in three regions of Mali. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(22), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224587
Chaachouay, N., Benkhnigue, O., Fadli, M., El Ibaoui, H., & Zidane, L. (2019). Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological studies of medicinal and aromatic plants used in the treatment of metabolic diseases in the Moroccan Rif. Heliyon, 5(10), e02191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02191
Chaitanya, M. V. N. L., Baye, H. G., Ali, H. S., & Usamo, F. B. (2011). Traditional African Medicine. Pharmacognosy-Medicinal Plantes, 1, 413–418. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110807509.413
Chisamile, W., Sonibare, M., & Kamanula, J. (2023). Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Infectious Diseases by Local Communities in Traditional Authority (T/A) Mbelwa, Mzimba District, Northern Region, Malawi. J, 6(1), 115–139. https://doi.org/10.3390/j6010009
Dagne, E., Dobo, B., & Bedewi, Z. (2021). Antibacterial Activity of Papaya (Carica papaya) Leaf and Seed Extracts Against Some Selected Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria. Pharmacognosy Journal, 13(6), 1727–1733. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2021.13.223
De Luca, V., Salim, V., Atsumi, S. M., & Yu, F. (2012). Mining the biodiversity of plants: A revolution in the making. In Science (Vol. 336, Issue 6089, pp. 1658–1661). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1217410
Destoumieux-garzón, D., Mavingui, P., Boetsch, G., Giraudoux, P., Le Roux, F., Morand, S., Paillard, C., Pontier, D., Sueur, C., & Voituron, Y. (2018). The One Health Concept : 10 Years Old and a Long Road Ahead. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 5(14), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2018.00014
Gajdács, M., Urbán, E., Stájer, A., & Baráth, Z. (2021). Antimicrobial resistance in the context of the sustainable development goals: A brief review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 11(1), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11010006
Gangaram, S., Naidoo, Y., Dewir, Y. H., & El-Hendawy, S. (2022). Phytochemicals and biological activities of barleria (Acanthaceae). Plants, 11(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11010082
Güler, B., Manav, E., & Uʇurlu, E. (2015). Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Bozüyük (Bilecik-Turkey). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 173, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.007
Hutchings, M. I., Truman, A. W., & Wilkinson, B. (2019). Antibiotics : past, present and future. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 51(10), 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008
Kempena, A., Boudzoumou, F., Nganga, D., & Ray, H. (2014). Cartography of environmental vulnerability to soil erosion of the urban area of Brazzaville using Geographic Information System ( GIS ). International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, 3(5), 35–43.
Khajure, P. V, & Rathod, J. L. (2010). Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Acanthus Ilicifolius Extracted From the Mangroves of Karwar Coast Karnataka. Recent Research in Science and Technology, 2(6), 2076–5061. www.recent-science.com
Kiefer, D., Bradbury, J., & Tellez-Giron, P. (2014). A pilot study of herbal medicine use in a MW Latino population. WMJ, 113(2), 64–71.
Kimpouni, V., Mamboueni, J. C., Tsoungould, F. G. M., & Mikoko, E. N. (2019). Environment and livelihood of the Kouni community of the Kayes sub-prefecture (Bouenza, Congo). Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 18, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.44.1-15
Kirkcaldy, R. D., Weston, E., Segurado, A. C., & Hughes, G. (2020). Epidemiology of Gonorrhea: A Global Perspective. Sex Health, 16(5), 401–411. https://doi.org/10.1071/SH19061.Epidemiology
Klotoé, J. (2013). Ethnopharmacological Survey on Antihemorrhagic Medicinal Plants in South of Benin. In European Journal of Medicinal Plants (Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp. 40–51). https://doi.org/10.9734/ejmp/2013/2093
Koubouana, F., Averti Suspense, I., Mbemba, M., Averti IFO, S., Moutsambote, J.-M., Ridelle Farelle BANZOUZI, R., Akobe, A., Openga Ikama, C., Brigitte MANTOTA, A., & Saint, D. (2015). Structure and Flora Tree Biodiversity in Congo Basin: Case of a Secondary Tropical Forest in Southwest of Congo-Brazzaville. Research in Plant Sciences, 3(3), 49–60. https://doi.org/10.12691/plant-3-3-2
Lara Reimers, E. A., Cusimamani, E. F., Lara Rodríguez, E. A., del Valle, J. M. Z., Polesny, Z., & Pawera, L. (2018). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in Zacatecas state, Mexico. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 87(2), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3581
Leso, L. K., Elansary, H. O., Mearns, K., & Yessoufou, K. (2017). Ethnobotany at a local scale: Diversity of knowledge of medicinal plants and assessment of plant cultural importance in the Polokwane local municipality, South Africa. Botany Letters, 164(1), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/23818107.2016.1268064
Matos, P., Batista, M. T., & Figueirinha, A. (2022). A review of the ethnomedicinal uses, chemistry, and pharmacological properties of the genus Acanthus (Acanthaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 293, 115271.
Mbayo, K. M., Kalonda, M. E., Tshisand, T. P., Kisimba, K. E., Mulamba, M., Kalunga, M. R., Sangwa, K. G., Mbayo, K. G., Maseho, M. F., Bakari, A. S., Mpiana, T. P., Kahumba, B. J., & Lumbu, S. J.-B. (2016). Contribution to Ethnobotanical Knowledge of some Euphorbiaceae used in Traditional Medicine in Lubumbashi and its surroundings (DRC). Journal of Advanced Botany and Zoology, 4(2), 1–16.
Mboussou, F., Ndumbi, P., Ngom, R., Kassamali, Z., Ogundiran, O., Beek, J. Van, Williams, G., Okot, C., Hamblion, E. L., & Impouma, B. (2019). Infectious disease outbreaks in the African region: overview of events reported to the World Health Organization in 2018 - Erratum. Epidemiology and Infection, 147, e307. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268819002061
Mfoukou-Ntsakala, A., Bitémo, M., Speybroeck, N., Huylenbroeck, G. Van, & Thys, Ér. (2006). Agriculture urbaine et subsistance des ménages dans une zone de post-conflit en Afrique centrale. Biotechnology, Agronomy and Society and Environment, 10(3), 237–249.
Miethke, M., Hammann, P., Halby, L., Arimondo, P. B., Glaser, P., Aigle, B., Bode, H. B., Genilloud, O., Truman, A. W., Weissman, K. J., Graz, M., Donadio, S., Fraisse, L., Piddock, L. J. V, Gilbert, I. H., Moser, H. E., & Muller, R. (2021). Towards the sustainable discovery and development of new antibiotics. Nature Reviews Chemistry, 5(10), 726–749. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-021-00313-1
Monari, S., Ferri, M., Salinitro, M., & Tassoni, A. (2022). Ethnobotanical Review and Dataset Compiling on Wild and Cultivated Plants Traditionally Used as Medicinal Remedies in Italy. Plants, 11(15), 2041. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11152041
Nabèrè, O., Adama, H., Samson, G., Kiessoum, K., Patrice, Z., Roland, M. N. T., Moussa, C., Martin, K., Jeanne, M. F., & Germaine, N. O. (2013). Antibacterial and phytochemical studies of three Acanthaceae species used in burkina faso traditional medicine. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 3(5), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2013.3510
Ndou, R. V., Materechera, S. A., Mwanza, M., Otang-Mbeng, W., & Ijane, M. F. (2023). Indigenous knowledge and use of medicinal plants for ethnoveterinary within the North West Province, South Africa. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1273562. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1273562
Ndukwe, G. I., Okoronkwo, O. F., & Jack, I. R. (2023). Phytochemical Contents and In Vitro Pathogenic Microbial Growth Inhibitory Activities of Acanthus montanus Root and Leaf Extracts. Nigerian Journal of Chemical Research, 28(2), 128–141.
Ogidi, O. I., Okore, C. C., Akpan, U. M., Ayebabogha, M. N., & Onukwufo, C. J. (2021). Evaluation of antimicrobial activity and bioactive phytochemical properties of mango (Mangifera indica) stem-bark extracts. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 8(5), 189–195.
O’Neill, J. (2016). Tackling drug-resistant infections globally: Final report and recommendations. Review on Antimicrobial Resistance, 7(3), 1–84. https://doi.org/10.4103/2045-080x.186181
Osseo-Asare, A. D. (2024). Writing Medical Authority : The Rise of Literate Healers in Ghana, 1930-70. The Journal of African History, 57(1), 69–91.
Palhares, R. M., Drummond, M. G., Dos Santos Alves Figueiredo Brasil, B., Cosenza, G. P., Das Graças Lins Brandão, M., & Oliveira, G. (2015). Medicinal plants recommended by the World Health Organization: DNA barcode identification associated with chemical analyses guarantees their quality. PLoS ONE, 10(5), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127866
Pirintsos, S., Panagiotopoulos, A., Bariotakis, M., Daskalakis, V., Lionis, C., Sourvinos, G., Karakasiliotis, I., Kampa, M., & Castanas, E. (2022). From Traditional Ethnopharmacology to Modern Natural Drug Discovery: A Methodology Discussion and Specific Examples. Molecules, 27(13), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134060
Poós, T., & Varju, E. (2017). Drying characteristics of medicinal plants. International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering, 8(1), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1556/1848.2017.8.1.12
Ranganathan, P., & Caduff, C. (2023). Designing and validating a research questionnaire. Perspectives in Clinical Research, 14, 152–155.
Rehman, S., Iqbal, Z., Qureshi, R., & Shah, G. M. (2023). Quantitative ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the indigenous communities of Shawal Valley, District North Waziristan, Pakistan. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 25, 48. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.248.5.1-24
Sales, H., Šatović, Z., Alves, M. L., Fevereiro, P., Nunes, J., & Vaz Patto, M. C. (2021). Accessing Ancestral Origin and Diversity Evolution by Net Divergence of an Ongoing Domestication Mediterranean Olive Tree Variety. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 688214. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.688214
Schultz, F., & Garbe, L. A. (2023). How to approach a study in ethnopharmacology? Providing an example of the different research stages for newcomers to the field today. Pharmacology Research and Perspectives, 11(4), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/prp2.1109
Tadesse, B. T., Ashley, E. A., Ongarello, S., Havumaki, J., Wijegoonewardena, M., González, I. J., & Dittrich, S. (2017). Antimicrobial resistance in Africa : a systematic review. BMC Infectious Diseases, 17(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-017-2713-1
Tamokou, J. de D., Kuiate, J. R., Tene, M., Nwemeguela, T. J. K., & Tane, P. (2011). The antimicrobial activities of extract and compounds isolated from Brillantaisia lamium. Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences, 36(1), 24–31.
Tchicaillat-Landou, M., Petit, J., Gaiani, C., Miabangana, E. S., Kimbonguila, A., Nzikou, J. M., Scher, J., & Matos, L. (2018). Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by traditional healers for the treatment of oxidative stress-related diseases in the Congo Basin. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 13(June), 76–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2018.05.002
Uchil, R. R., Kohli, G. S., Katekhaye, V. M., & Swami, O. C. (2014). Strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 8(7), 8–11. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2014/8925.4529
World Health Organisation. (2014). Antimicrobial resistance: global report on surveillance.
World Health Organization. (2021a). Global shortage of innovative antibiotics fuels emergence and spread of drug-resistance (Issue April, pp. 13–15). https://www.who.int/news/item/15-04-2021-global-shortage-of-innovative-antibiotics-fuels-emergence-and-spread-of-drug-resistance
World Health Organization. (2021b). Global technical strategy for malaria 2016-2030, 2021 update. In World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/1357541/retrieve
World Health Organization. (2023). WHO convenes first high-level global summit on traditional medicine to explore evidence base, opportunities to accelerate health for all. https://www.who.int/news/item/10-08-2023-who-convenes-first-high-level-global-summit-on-traditional-medicine-to-explore-evidence-base--opportunities-to-accelerate-health-for-all
Yapi, P. A., & Kouadio, I. A. (2020). Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities of Palm Kernel Oils Extracted from Varieties Dura and Tenera of Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) and the Relationship to Their Chemical Composition. Journal of Food Studies, 9(1), 95. https://doi.org/10.5296/jfs.v9i1.17071
Yuan, H., Ma, Q., Ye, L., & Piao, G. (2016). The traditional medicine and modern medicine from natural products. Molecules, 21(5), 559. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21050559
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.