Keywords
How to Cite
Abstract
Halitosis is an offensive odour emanating from the mouth whose effects are so devastating on the social and psychological state of individuals. Over 50% of the world population is claimed to have halitosis and it is the third commonest complaint patients present to the dental clinic. The objective of this review was to present a succinct discussion on the epidemiology, aetiology, classification, social and psychologic effects, diagnosis, and management of halitosis based on conventional and recently introduced information. An extensive literature review was conducted on several published peer-review journal articles but only articles from 2017-2021 and those written in the English language which fulfilled the study’s inclusion criteria were considered. The review also considered all relevant subject headings such as halitosis, bad breath, oral malodour, and volatile sulfur compounds in PubMed/Medline, Google Scholar, JSTOR, Medscape, and Microsoft academia databases. Several articles were related to the subject area but only 52 full-text articles were used for this review. According to the reviewed articles, the studies pointed to the fact that a multidisciplinary approach is extremely crucial in managing halitosis to assist in identifying the right diagnosis and administering the correct treatment aimed at eliminating the aetiological agents and maintaining proper hygiene. Daily oral hygiene practice with the mechanical removal of dental biofilm using toothbrush and dentifrice, flossing and utilization of antimicrobial agents will significantly reduce the number of microorganisms causing bad breath.
References
Abidi, R., Mazhar, S., Bano, M., Shigri, A. A., & Leghari, M. A. (2018). Knowledge, attitude & practice regarding halitosis among patients attending the dental opd at a private dental hospital in karachi. Pakistan Oral & Dental Journal, 38(2), 245-249.
Aguiar, M. C. A., Pinheiro, N. C. G., Marcelino, K. P., & Lima, K. C. (2017). Halitosis and associated factors in institutionalized elderly persons. Rev. Bras. Geriatr. Gerontol., Rio de Janeiro, 20(6), 856-868
Ajike, S. O., & Okon-Essien, S. G. (2020). Knowledge, attitude and perception towards halitosis among in-school adolescents in south-west Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Research, 8(9), 40-44
Ajith, S., Sanjeev, R., Devi, S., Palathingal, P., Varghese, M. & Musthafa, N. (2019). Recent advances in management of halitosis. International Journal of Applied Dental Sciences, 5(4), 33-37
Alazmi, S. (2021). Prevalence and psychosocial impact of halitosis: a cross-sectional study. International Journal of Dental Sciences and Research, 9(1), 11-14
American Dental Association. (2019). Halitosis. https://www.mouthhealthy.org/en/az-topics/h/halitosis
Aydin, M., & Yeler, D. (2017). Subjective halitosis sub-classification: halitophobia, olfactory reference syndrome, olfactory obsession, self-halitosis, olfactory hallucination, delusional halitosis, and subjective halitosis. Journal of Dental Association, 38(10), e5-e8
Bernardi, S., Karygianni, L., Filippi, A., Anderson, A., Zurcher, A., Hellwig, E., Vach, K., Macchiarelli, G., & Al-Ahmad, A. (2020). Combining culture and culture-independent methods reveals new microbial composition of halitosis patients’ tongue biofilm. Microbiologyopen, 9(2), e958
Bicak, D. A. (2018). A current approach to halitosis and oral malodor- a mini-review. Open Dental Journal, 12(1),322–330.
Cecchini, F., Nobili, A., Zanvit, A., Miclavez, A., & Nobili, P. (2018). Halitosis treatment through the administration of antibiotic – resistant probiotic lactic yeast Kluyveromyces marxiamus fragilis B0399 (K-B0399). Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research, 12(1), 8887-8890
Chen, C. & Jin, Y. S. (2018). Effects of mechanical tongue cleaning on halitosis: a meta-analysis. TMR Integrative Nursing, 2(2): 68-75
Choi, K. Y., Lee, B. S., Kim, J. H., Jang, Y., Choi, J. W., & Lee, D. J. (2018). Assessment of volatile sulfur compounds in adults and pediatric chronic tonsillitis patients receiving tonsillectomy. Clinical and Experimental Otorhinolaryngology, 1-6
Çoban, Z., & Sönmez, I. (2017). Halitosis: A review of current literature. Meanders Medical and Dental Journal, 18, 164-170
Conceicao, M. D. D., Giudice, F. S., & Carvalho, L. F. (2018). The halitosis consequences inventory: psychometric properties and relationship with social anxiety disorder. BDJ Open, 4(1), 18002
Das, S., & Pal, M. (2020). Review–non-invasive monitoring of human health by exhaled breath analysis: a comprehensive review. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 167, 3
Dedania, B., Khanapara, D., Panwala, A., & Dharan, M. (2017). A case of mysterious impacted duodenal foreign body presenting with halitosis. Case Rep. Gastroenterol. 10(3), 800–807.
Deolia, S. G., Ali, M., Bhatia, S., & Sen, S. (2018). Psychological effects of halitosis among young adults. Annals Indian Psychiatry, 2,120-124
Du, M., Li, L., Jiang, H., Zheng, Y. & Zhang, J. (2019) Prevalence and relevant factors of halitosis in Chinese subjects: A clinical research. BMC Oral Health, 19(1):45.
Falcao, D. P., Miranda, P. C., Almeida, T. F. G., Scalco, M. G. S., Fregni, F., & Amorim, R. F. B. (2017). Assessment of the accuracy of portable monitors for halitosis evaluation in subjects without malodour complaint. Are they reliable for clinical practice? Journal of Applied Oral Science, 25(5), 559-565
Gudadhe, B., Gattani, D., Meshram, S., Shewale, A. & Dubey, S. (2017). Halitosis raising a stink: a review. International Journal of Life Science and Pharma Research, 7(1).
Guedes, C. C., Bussadori, S. K. & Weber, R. (2019). Halitosis: prevalence and association with oral etiological factors in children and adolescents. Journal of Breath Research, 13(2):026002.
Heboyan, A., Avetisyan, A. & Vardanyan, A. (2019). Halitosis as an issue of social and psychological significance. Journal of Research in Medical and Dental Science, 7(4): 33-40
Hennessy, B. J. (2020). Halitosis. https://www.msdmanuals.com/professsional/dental-disorders/symptoms-of-dental-and-oral-disorders/halitosis
Herman, S., Lisowska, G., Herman, J., Wojtyna, E., & Misiołek, M. (2018). Genuine halitosis in patients with dental and laryngological etiologies of mouth odor: severity and role of oral hygiene behaviors. European Journal of Oral Science, 126(2), 101-09
Huang, J., Li, C., & Jiang, J. (2018). Effects of fixed orthodontic brackets on oral malodor: A systematic review and meta-analysis according to the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis guidelines. Medicine, 97(14), e0233
Karima, M. (2017). The causes of bad breath in children. Paediatric Dental Care, 2, 132
Kayombo, C. M., & Mumhamba, E. G. (2017). Self-reported halitosis in relation to oral hygiene practices, oral health status, general health problems, and multifactorial characteristics among workers in Ilala and Temeke municipals, Tanzania. International Journal of Dentistry, https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8682010
Khozeimeh, F., Torabinia, N., Shahnaseri, S., Shafaee, H., & Mousavi, S. A. (2017). Determination of salivary urea and uric acid of patients with halitosis. Dental Research Journal (Isfahan), 14(4), 241-5.
Liu, S., Fu, E., Tu, H., Fu, M., Lin, C. & Shen, E. (2017). Comparison of oral malodour before and after non-surgical periodontal therapy in chronic periodontitis patients. Journal of Dental Sciences, 12(2), 156-160
Mandal, A. (2019). Treatment of halitosis. https://www.newsmedical.net/health/Treatment-of-Halitosis.aspx
Mubayrik, A. B., Hamdan, R. A., Hadlaq, E. M. A., AlBagieh, H., AlAhmed, D., Jaddoh, H., Demyati, M., & Shryei, R. A. (2017). Self-perception, knowledge, and awareness of halitosis among female university students. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry, 9(9), 45–52
Nakhleh, M. K., Quatredeniers, M., & Haick, H. (2017). Detection of halitosis in-breath: between the past, present, and future. Oral Disease, 24(5), 685-695
Nazir, M. A., Almas, K., & Majeed, M. I. (2017). The prevalence of halitosis (oral malodor) and associated factors among dental students and interns, Lahore, Pakistan. European Journal of Dentistry, 11(4), 480–485
Newman, T. (2018). Everything you need to know about bad breath. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/166636
Okunade, R. A. (2021). Causes and effects of halitosis among secondary students in Ijero Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. Biomedical Journal of Scientific and Technical Research, 33(2), 25592-25597
Patel, J., Kulkarni, A., Doshi, D., Reddy, P., Reddy, S., & Srilatha, A. (2017). Association between social anxiety with oral hygiene status and tongue coating among patients with subjective halitosis. Journal of Dental Hygiene, 91(5), 55–63.
Patil, S. (2021). Halitosis. emedicine.medscape.com/article/867570-overview/867570-overview
Renvert, S., Noack, M. J., Lequarts, C., Roldán, S., & Laine, M. L. (2020). The underestimated problem of intra-oral halitosis in dental practice: An expert consensus review. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry, 12, 251-263
Seerangaiyan, K., Jüch, F., & Winkel, E. G. (2018). Tongue coating: its characteristics and role in intra-oral halitosis and general health-a review. J Breath Res., 12(3), 034001
Silva, M. F., Leite, F. R. M., & Ferreira, L. B., (2018). Estimated prevalence of halitosis: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Clin Oral Investig, 22(1), 47–55.
Suzuki, N., Yoneda, M., Takeshita, T., Hirofuji, T., & Hanioka, T. (2019). Induction and inhibition of oral malodor. Molecular Oral Microbiology, 34(3), 85-96
Teshome, A., Derese, K. & Andualem, G. (2021). The prevalence and determinant factors of oral halitosis on Northwest Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry, 13, 173-179
Tsuruta, M., Takahashi, T., Tokunaga, M., Iwasaki, M., Kataoka, S., Kakuta, S., & Soh, I., Awano, S., Hirata, H., Kagawa, M. & Ansai, T. (2017). Relationship between pathologic subjective halitosis, olfactory reference syndrome and social anxiety in young Japanese women. BMC Psychology, 5: 7
Tungare, S., Zafar, N., & Paranjpe, A. (2021). Halitosis. www.statpearls.com/articlelibrary/viewarticle/22493
Ueno, M., Ohnuki, M., Zaitsu, T., Takehara, S., Furukawa, S., & Kawaguchi, Y. (2018). Prevalence and risk factors of halitosis in Japanese school children. Pediatric International, 60(6), 588–592.
Villa, A. (2019). Bad breath: what causes it and what to do about it. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/bad-breath-what-causes-it-and-what-to-do-about-it-2019012115803
Wang, J., & He, L. (2017). Effect of mechanical self-cleaning of tongue coating on malodor in halitosis patients originating from tongue coating. Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao, 49(2), 344-348.
West, M., & Tawhid, I. S. (2019). Halitosis: assessment and treatment. Retrieved from https://www.gmjournal.co.uk/halitosis-assessment-and-treatment
Ye, W., Zhang, Y., He, M., Zhu, C. & Feng, X. (2019). Relationship of tongue coating microbiome on volatile sulfur compounds in healthy and halitosis adults. Journal of Breath Research, 14(1): 016005
Zardawi, F. M., Khursheed, D. A., & Zorab, S. S. (2018). Self-perceived oral malodorous among Sulaimani Dental Students. Biomed Pharmacol Journal, 11(3)
Zhang, Y., Zhu, C., Cao, G., Zhan, J., Feng, X., & Chen, X. (2021). Dynamic alterations of microbiota related to halitosis in preschool children. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 11, 599467
Ziaei, N., Hosseinpour, S., Nezari, H., Rezaei, M., & Rezaei, K. (2019). Halitosis and its associated factors among Kermanshah high school students (2015). Clinical. Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry, 11, 27-338
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.