Keywords
Hygiene
Sanitation
Displaced Persons Camp
SPHERE Standards
How to Cite
Abstract
Introduction
Access to safe drinking water, hygiene, and sanitation (WASH) is a fundamental human right and a critical public health determinant, particularly in humanitarian emergency settings.
Purpose
This study aimed to assess access to WASH services in the Lushagala displaced persons camp in Goma, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and to compare the findings with the SPHERE minimum standards in order to identify gaps and inform improvement interventions.
Methods
A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted from 1 to 31 July 2024 among 446 households selected using a systematic two-stage probability sampling method. Data were collected using KoboCollect and analysed with Stata version 15.0. The study received ethical approval (Approval No. ESP/CE/200/2024) and was conducted after obtaining verbal informed consent from participants.
Results
Average water consumption was 5.9 litres per person per day. Sixty-two per cent of households spent more than 30 minutes collecting water (95% CI: 57.5%–66.5%). The sanitation coverage ratio was 63 people per latrine. Only 6.3% of sanitation facilities (95% CI: 4.0%–8.6%) had a functional handwashing station, and 82% of latrines were poorly maintained (95% CI: 78.4%–85.6%). In addition, 87.7% of households (95% CI: 84.6%–90.8%) reported the presence of solid waste in their household surroundings.
Conclusion
The study reveals critical gaps in access to WASH services in the Lushagala displaced persons camp when compared with SPHERE minimum standards. These findings highlight the urgent need to increase water supply to at least 15 litres per person per day and to address sanitation deficits through the construction of approximately 2,900 additional latrines, thereby reducing the current ratio of 63 people per latrine to the recommended standard of 20 people per latrine. These results provide essential evidence to guide the actions of authorities and humanitarian actors.
References
Action Against Hunger (ACF). (2017). WASH’ nutrition: Practical guide for better nutritional impact through integrated WASH and nutrition programs [Manual]. Knowledge Against Hunger. https://knowledgeagainsthunger.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/11/WASHNutrition-Guide-Pratique.pdf
Bako, Z., Barakagira, A., & Nabukonde, A. (2021). Towards attaining the recommended humanitarian Sphere standards of sanitation in Bidibidi refugee camp found in Yumbe District, Uganda. Journal of International Humanitarian Action, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-021-00105-8
Biran, A., Schmidt, W., Zeleke, L., Emukule, H., Khay, H., & Parker, J. (2012). Hygiene and sanitation practices among residents of three long-term refugee camps in Thailand, Ethiopia and Kenya. 17(9), 1133–1141. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22845619/
Calderón-Villarreal, A., Schweitzer, R., & Kayser, G. (2022). Social and geographic inequalities in water, sanitation and hygiene access in 21 refugee camps and settlements in Bangladesh, Kenya, Uganda, South Sudan, and Zimbabwe. International Journal for Equity in Health, 21(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-022-01626-3
Cronin, A. A., Shrestha, D., Cornier, N., Abdalla, F., & Aramburu, N. E. C. (2008). A review of water and sanitation provision in refugee camps in association with selected health and nutrition indicators: The need for integrated service provision. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.019
ERM. (2024). Rapid multisectoral assessment (ERM) report: Location of the ERM – Sites of displaced populations in the health zones affected by ongoing clashes between M23 and FARDC in Rutshuru, Nyiragongo, and Masisi territories (pp. 1–21). https://ehtools.org/uploads/brochures/1416.pdf
Goma Epidemiology Group. (1995). Public health impact of Rwandan refugee crisis: What happened in Goma, Zaire, in July, 1994? The Lancet, 345(8946), 339–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90338-0
Kanungo, S., Chatterjee, P., Saha, J., Pan, T., Chakrabarty, N. D., & Dutta, S. (2021). Water, sanitation, and hygiene practices in urban slums of eastern India. 224(Suppl 5), 573–583. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiab354
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF). (2023). DRC: For displaced populations around Goma, the urgent need to provide water access that meets needs. https://www.msf.fr/actualites/rdc-pour-les-populations-deplacees-autour-de-goma-l-urgence-de-fournir-un-acces-al-eau-a-la-hauteur-des-besoins
Nounkeu, C. D., Teta, I., Dharod, J. M., Foudjo, B. U. S., Ntentie, F. R., Boris, A. K., Georges, N. T., & Oben, J. (2022). Limited water access is associated with food insecurity and diarrhoeal episodes among children suffering from moderate acute malnutrition in Far-North Cameroon. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(1), 68–79. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2021.171
OCHA. (2024). DR Congo: Humanitarian situation in North Kivu Province (January 16, 2024) (pp. 1–6). https://www.unocha.org/publications/report/democratic-republic-congo/rd-congo-situation-humanitaire-dans-la-province-du-nord-kivu-16-january-2024
Shapna, K. J., Hasan, K., Kabir, K. H., Li, J., & Hossain, M. L. (2023). Water, sanitation and hygiene challenges of forcibly displaced Myanmar nationals in Rohingya camps in Bangladesh. Journal of Water and Health, 21(10), 1385–1403. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2023.045
Sphere Association. (2018). The Sphere handbook: Humanitarian charter and minimum standards in humanitarian response. https://handbook.hspstandards.org/sphere
UNHCR. (2024). WASH in emergencies. UNHCR Emergency Handbook. https://emergency.unhcr.org/emergency-assistance/water-sanitation-and-hygiene/wash-emergencies
UNICEF. (2024, February 20). National WASH Cluster: Weekly meeting minutes, February 20, 2024. https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/cluster-wash-national-compte-rendu-de-la-reunion-hebdomadaire-20-fevrier-2024-meeting-minutes
World Health Organization. (2018). Guidelines on sanitation and health. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241514705
World Health Organization, & UNICEF. (2023). Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (JMP). https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/jmp-2023-wash-households-launch-version.pdf
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.